Africa Lead Acid Battery Market

Lead Acid Battery Market (Product: Flooded, Sealed, AGM, and Gel) - Africa Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends, and Forecast, 2022-2031

Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Outlook 2031

  • The Africa lead acid battery market was valued at US$ 4.3 Bn in 2021
  • It is estimated to grow at a CAGR of 4.1 % from 2022 to 2031
  • The Africa lead acid battery market is expected to reach US$ 6.2 Bn by the end of 2031

Analysts’ Viewpoint on Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Scenario

Lead acid batteries have already become ubiquitous in the consumer electronics sector and thus, manufacturers should focus more on emerging end-use industries, such as telecommunication and energy storage, to tap into new opportunity areas. Global manufacturers of lead acid batteries should focus on the expansion of their distribution capacities in Africa by collaborating with regional players as well as channel partners. There is limited industrialization in Africa; however, majority of the industrial base lies in South Africa, Algeria, Egypt, Nigeria, Morocco, and a few other countries. Therefore, manufacturers of lead acid batteries should focus primarily on these countries in order to increase their presence across the region. Market stakeholders should adopt contingency planning to strategically allocate budgets in order to prevent disruptions across consumer demand, inventory supplies, and logistic services amongst other areas post the COVID-19 impact.

Overview of Africa Lead Acid Battery Market

A battery that is composed of sponge metallic lead anode, lead-dioxide cathode, and sulfuric acid solution electrolyte is called a lead-acid battery. It was the first battery that was used for commercial applications. Lead acid batteries are widely used in the transportation industry, as countries are adopting electric vehicles to reduce carbon emissions.

Key market segments in Africa lead acid battery market span across various industries, including automotive, uninterruptible power supply (UPS), and telecommunication.

Lead acid batteries are more durable, cost-effective, and resistant to wear & tear as compared to lithium-ion batteries, and they can endure overcharging. They also have a high cell voltage and a high power-to-weight ratio since they supply high surge currents, making them ideal for use in automobiles.

The market value of the Africa lead acid battery market is expected to grow due to the increasing production of secondary batteries. The chemical reactions that occur in secondary cells are reversible. The reactants that generate an electric current in these batteries (via chemical reactions) can be regenerated by passing a current through the battery (recharging). One type of lead acid battery is the sealed lead acid battery, also called valve regulated lead acid (VRLA) battery, which is a lead acid battery that has the sulfuric acid electrolyte coagulated (thickened) so that it does not spill out.

Demand for Lead Acid Battery in Data Centers to Favor Manufacturers

The telecommunications sector is one of the very few industries witnessing rapid technological development and improvement even during the tough times of recession.

Stationary batteries are used for diverse applications, where power is necessary on a standby or emergency basis. These batteries do not discharge frequently due to minimal duration, and they do not require high storage capacity. Thus, lead acid batteries provide a viable solution to the telecom sector.

An increase in the number of subscribers are prompting telecom companies to increase the installation of the number of telecom towers, which is considerably boosting the demand for lead acid batteries for backup purposes.

The rise in the number of data centers and tower installations during the forecast period is likely to drive the demand for lead acid batteries, until a viable alternative is available, which can be used for battery-based power backup purposes instead of lead acid batteries.

These data centers eventually require a central power backup facility; even the UPS used in the systems comprises basic lead acid batteries. Thus, a rise in the number of data centers is expected to boost the usage of this battery considerably.

Based on the factors mentioned above, increasing demand for telecommunication and data center applications is expected to drive the lead acid battery market in Africa during the forecast period.

Rise in Adoption of Lead Acid Battery in Hybrid Vehicles to Boost Market

The world is witnessing a proliferation in the adoption of hybrid vehicles. Typically, lead acid batteries are used in hybrid vehicles for short power bursts, such as starting a car engine or running light electrical loads. Moreover, lead acid batteries supply extra power when the vehicle’s electrical load exceeds the supply from the charging system (alternator) and act as a voltage stabilizer in the electrical system, which evens out voltage spikes, thereby preventing them from damaging other components in the electrical system.

Government initiatives such as EVI Membership, EV30@30 campaign, FAME-I and II, National Mission for Transformative Mobility and Battery Manufacturing, National Electric Mobility Mission Plan, and Phased Manufacturing Program are promoting the use of next-generation mobility. These initiatives to boost the adoption of hybrid vehicles are expected to increase the production of hybrid vehicles, and subsequently propel the demand for leads acid batteries.

Several automotive manufacturers, including Honda, Toyota, and Nissan are also making significant investments for the development of mild hybrid vehicles. Automakers have initiated the introduction of 48V mild hybrid vehicles among standard features in new vehicle models. The introduction of such mild hybrid vehicles into the market is driving the adoption of lead storage battery types for automotive applications.

Diverse Applications of Flooded Lead Acid Batteries to Fuel Market Growth

In terms of product, the Africa lead acid battery market has been classified into flooded, sealed, AGM, and gel. The flooded segment dominated the Africa lead acid battery market with more than 64.1% share in 2021. The segment is expected to propel rapidly at a CAGR of 4% during the forecast period. The demand for flooded batteries is high due to their cost-effectiveness.

The flooded batteries are widely adopted, owing to their high backup power and their ability to operate when charged partially. Flooded batteries are preferred in grid energy storage and utility.

The flooded battery segment is estimated to augment two times faster than the absorbent glass mat (AGM) battery segment by the end of 2031, owing to an increase in the use of flooded batteries as commercial and residential backup batteries. On the other hand, manufacturers are diversifying their production for valve regulated lead acid battery types which are being publicized for their reverse power design since the electrolyte is captive, preventing it from spilling even when the case is punctured.

Country Outlook of Africa Lead Acid Battery Market

Based on country, the lead acid battery market in Africa has been segregated into Nigeria, Ethiopia, Egypt, South Africa, Kenya, Uganda, Algeria, and Ghana.

South Africa accounted for a relatively large share of the lead acid battery market in Africa, in terms of revenue. Building & construction is a rapidly growing sector due to an increase in population in the country. Infrastructure development projects, booming industrialization, and construction activities are expected to be on the higher side in the country, which, in turn, is expected to supplement the demand for lead acid batteries for activities, such as backup, lighting & power tools.

Furthermore, the Government of South Africa is focusing on investment in electric car makers to launch more electric vehicles. Enactment of regulations and carbon emission policies also boosts the lead acid battery market. All the above factors indicate why South Africa is a leading country of the lead acid battery market in Africa.

Analysis of Key Players in Africa Lead Acid Battery Market

The demand analysis of Africa lead acid battery market indicates toward investment in research & development (R&D) activities to produce advanced, high-performance, and corrosion-free lead acid batteries. Furthermore, companies should increase awareness about the advantages of lead acid batteries, such as robust performance during sudden outages & power surges and low maintenance cost of batteries, in order to compensate for its high initial investment cost.

Stakeholders operating in the Africa lead acid battery market are increasing the availability of different 12v lead acid battery types such as gel batteries that are eliminating the need for regular maintenance and help to prevent fluid leakage.

The Africa lead acid battery market is highly consolidated, with a small number of large-scale vendors controlling a majority of the share. Most companies are investing significantly in comprehensive research and development activities, primarily to create environment-friendly products. Diversification of product portfolios and mergers & acquisitions are prominent strategies adopted by key players. JOHNSON CONTROLS INTERNATIONAL PLC, ENERSYS, Exide Technologies, HBL Power Systems Limited, and Trojan Battery Company are the key entities operating in the market.

Each of these players has been profiled in the Africa lead acid battery market report based on parameters such as company overview, financial overview, business strategies, product portfolio, business segments, and recent developments.

Key Developments in Africa Lead Acid Battery Market

  • In April 2019, GS Yuasa International Ltd. announced the launch of 12V lead acid batteries that would help provide UPS applications to data centers while minimizing the grid corrosion and feature 10-year design life & prevent post leaks
  • In November 2020, Bosch announced the launch of a lead acid battery recycling project in Ghana. As part of the project, Bosch has established reverse logistics in partnership with Ghana-based professional market players, City Waste Management Ghana, battery distributors, used battery collectors, and end consumers.
  • In September 2020, the United States Trade and Development Agency (USTDA) awarded a grant for a feasibility study to help Lekela Energie Stockage deploy utility-scale battery storage technology in support of its Taiba N’Diaye wind farm, the largest of its kind in Senegal and West Africa
  • In January 2021, the Renewable Energy Performance Platform (REPP) invested US$ 1,364 Bn (EUR 1 million) into a renewable-powered battery rental company, targeting off-grid communities in West Africa
  • In June 2021, the World Bank Group provided US$ 465 Bn to expand energy access and renewable energy integration in West Africa. The new Regional Electricity Access and Battery-Energy Storage Technologies (BEST) Project approved by the World Bank Group would increase grid connections in fragile areas of the Sahel.

Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Snapshot

Attribute

Detail

Market Size Value in 2021

US$ 4.3 Bn

Market Forecast Value in 2031

US$ 6.2 Bn

Growth Rate

(CAGR)

4.1%

Forecast Period

2022–2031

Historical Data Available for

2020

Quantitative Units

US$ Bn for Value and Units for Volume

Market Analysis

It includes cross-segment analysis at the regional as well as country level. Furthermore, the qualitative analysis includes drivers, restraints, opportunities, key trends, Porter’s Five Forces analysis, value chain analysis, and key trend analysis.

Competition Landscape

  • Market share analysis by company (2021)
  • Company profiles section includes overview, product portfolio, sales footprint, key subsidiaries or distributors, strategy and recent developments, and key financials

Format

Electronic (PDF) + Excel

Market Segmentation

  • Product
    • Flooded
    • Sealed
    • AGM
    • Gel
  • Application
    • Automotive
    • Motor Cycles
    • Motive Power
    • Renewable Power
    • UPS & Telecom
    • Construction
    • Others (Wheelchairs, etc.)

Regions Covered

  • Africa

Countries Covered

  • Nigeria
  • Ethiopia
  • Egypt
  • South Africa
  • Kenya
  • Uganda
  • Algeria
  • Ghana
  • Rest of Africa

Companies Profiled

  • JOHNSON CONTROLS INTERNATIONAL PLC
  • ENERSYS
  • Exide Technologies
  • EXIDE INDUSTRIES LIMITED
  • HBL Power Systems Limited
  • C&D TECHNOLOGIES, INC
  • NorthStar
  • First National Battery
  • East Penn Manufacturing Co
  • FIAMM Energy Technology S.p.A.
  • HOPPECKE Batterien GmbH & Co. KG
  • Crown Battery Manufacturing Company
  • Trojan Battery Company
  • Bosch

Customization Scope

Available upon request

Pricing

Available upon request

Frequently Asked Questions

What was the market size of Africa lead acid battery in 2021?

The Africa lead acid battery market stood at US$ 4.3 Bn in 2021

What would be the CAGR of the Africa lead acid battery market during the forecast period?

The Africa lead acid battery market is expected to grow at a CAGR of 4.1% from 2022 to 2031

What are the key factors driving the Africa lead acid battery market?

Rise in demand for lead acid battery in data centers and telecommunication industry, and increase in adoption of lead acid battery in automotive industry are key factors driving the Africa lead acid battery market

Which application segment contributed the largest share to the Africa lead acid battery market in 2021?

The automotive segment accounted for key value share of 49.2% of the Africa lead acid battery market in 2021

Which country is more attractive for vendors in the Africa lead acid battery market?

South Africa is a more attractive region for vendors in the Africa lead acid battery market

Who are the key players in the Africa lead acid battery market?

Key players of the Africa lead acid battery market include JOHNSON CONTROLS INTERNATIONAL PLC, ENERSYS, Exide Technologies, HBL Power Systems Limited, and Trojan Battery Company

    1. Executive Summary

        1.1. Lead Acid Battery Market Snapshot

        1.2. Current Market and Future Potential

    2. Market Overview

        2.1. Market Segmentation

        2.2. Market Trends

        2.3. Market Dynamics

            2.3.1. Drivers

            2.3.2. Restraints

            2.3.3. Opportunities

        2.4. Porter’s Five Forces Analysis

        2.5. Regulatory Analysis

        2.6. Value Chain Analysis

            2.6.1. List of Lead Acid Battery Manufacturers

            2.6.2. List of Potential Customers

    3. COVID-19 Impact Analysis

    4. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Analysis and Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

        4.1. Introduction and Definitions

        4.2. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            4.2.1. Flooded

            4.2.2. Sealed

            4.2.3. AGM

            4.2.4. Gel

        4.3. Market Attractiveness, by Product

    5. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Analysis and Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

        5.1. Introduction and Definitions

        5.2. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            5.2.1. Automotive

            5.2.2. Motor Cycles

            5.2.3. Motive Power

            5.2.4. Renewable Power

            5.2.5. UPS & Telecom

            5.2.6. Construction

            5.2.7. Others (Wheelchairs, etc.)

        5.3. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Attractiveness, by Application

    6. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Analysis and Forecast, by Country and Sub-region, 2022–2031

        6.1. Key Findings

        6.2. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Country and Sub-region, 2022–2031

            6.2.1. Nigeria

            6.2.2. Ethiopia

            6.2.3. Egypt

            6.2.4. South Africa

            6.2.5. Kenya

            6.2.6. Uganda

            6.2.7. Algeria

            6.2.8. Ghana

            6.2.9. Rest of Africa

        6.3. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Attractiveness, by Country and Sub-region

    7. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Analysis and Forecast, 2022–2031

        7.1. Key Findings

        7.2. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

        7.3. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

        7.4. Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Country and Sub-region, 2022-2031

            7.4.1. Nigeria Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.2. Nigeria Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            7.4.3. Ethiopia Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.4. Ethiopia Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            7.4.5. Egypt Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.6. Egypt Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            7.4.7. South Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.8. South Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            7.4.9. Kenya Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.10. Kenya Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            7.4.11. Uganda Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.12. Uganda Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            7.4.13. Algeria Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.14. Algeria Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            7.4.15. Ghana Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.16. Ghana Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

            7.4.17. Rest of Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

            7.4.18. Rest of Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) and Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application, 2022–2031

        7.5. Middle East & Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Attractiveness Analysis

    8. Competition Landscape

        8.1. Africa Lead Acid Battery Company Market Share Analysis, 2022

        8.2. Company Profiles (Details – Overview, Financials, Recent Developments, and Strategy)

            8.2.1. JOHNSON CONTROLS INTERNATIONAL PLC

                8.2.1.1. Company Description

                8.2.1.2. Business Overview

                8.2.1.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.1.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.2. ENERSYS

                8.2.2.1. Company Description

                8.2.2.2. Business Overview

                8.2.2.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.2.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.3. Exide Technologies

                8.2.3.1. Company Description

                8.2.3.2. Business Overview

                8.2.3.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.3.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.4. EXIDE INDUSTRIES LIMITED

                8.2.4.1. Company Description

                8.2.4.2. Business Overview

                8.2.4.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.4.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.5. HBL Power Systems Limited

                8.2.5.1. Company Description

                8.2.5.2. Business Overview

                8.2.5.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.5.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.6. C&D TECHNOLOGIES, INC

                8.2.6.1. Company Description

                8.2.6.2. Business Overview

                8.2.6.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.6.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.7. NorthStar

                8.2.7.1. Company Description

                8.2.7.2. Business Overview

                8.2.7.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.7.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.8. First National Battery

                8.2.8.1. Company Description

                8.2.8.2. Business Overview

                8.2.8.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.8.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.9. East Penn Manufacturing Co

                8.2.9.1. Company Description

                8.2.9.2. Business Overview

                8.2.9.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.9.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.10. FIAMM Energy Technology S.p.A.

                8.2.10.1. Company Description

                8.2.10.2. Business Overview

                8.2.10.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.10.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.11. HOPPECKE Batterien GmbH & Co. KG

                8.2.11.1. Company Description

                8.2.11.2. Business Overview

                8.2.11.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.11.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.12. Crown Battery Manufacturing Company

                8.2.12.1. Company Description

                8.2.12.2. Business Overview

                8.2.12.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.12.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.13. Trojan Battery Company

                8.2.13.1. Company Description

                8.2.13.2. Business Overview

                8.2.13.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.13.4. Strategic Overview

            8.2.14. Bosch

                8.2.14.1. Company Description

                8.2.14.2. Business Overview

                8.2.14.3. Financial Overview

                8.2.14.4. Strategic Overview

    9. Primary Research: Key Insights

    10. Appendix

    List of Tables

    Table 1: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 2: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 3: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 4: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 5: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Country and Sub-region, 2022–2031

    Table 6: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Country and Sub-region, 2022–2031

    Table 7: Nigeria Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 8: Nigeria Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 9: Nigeria Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 10: Nigeria Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 11: Ethiopia Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 12: Ethiopia Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 13: Ethiopia Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 14: Ethiopia Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 15: Egypt Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 16: Egypt Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 17: Egypt Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 18: Egypt Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 19: South Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 20: South Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 21: South Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 22: South Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 23: Kenya Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 24: Kenya Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 25: Kenya Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 26: Kenya Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 27: Uganda Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 28: Uganda Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 29: Uganda Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 30: Uganda Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 31: Algeria Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 32: Algeria Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 33: Ghana Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 34: Ghana Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Product, 2022–2031

    Table 35: Ghana Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 36: Ghana Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 37: Rest of Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume (Units) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    Table 38: Rest of Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Value (US$ Bn) Forecast, by Application 2022–2031

    List of Figures

    Figure 1: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume Share Analysis, by Product, 2022‒2031

    Figure 2: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Attractiveness, by Product

    Figure 3: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume Share Analysis, by Application, 2022‒2031

    Figure 4: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Attractiveness, by Application

    Figure 5: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Volume Share Analysis, by Country and Sub-region, 2022‒2031

    Figure 6: Africa Lead Acid Battery Market Attractiveness, by Country and Sub-region

Copyright © Transparency Market Research, Inc. All Rights reserved